From Our Feature Article:
The Healthy Pleasure of Their Company: Companion Animals and Human Health
Karen Allen, School of Medicine, State University of New York at Buffalo & #9;
While the research cited so far has focused on the potential role of pets in the prevention of disease, a substantial number of studies have explored the therapeutic effects of companion animals on people who live with a wide range of illnesses and disabilities. Results of an investigation about children with autism (Redefer & Goodman, 1989) suggest that a dog, when used as a component in therapy, can have a strong impact on behavior. The introduction of a friendly dog was associated with a significant increase in prosocial behavior and a decrease in autistic behaviors such as self-absorption. The authors suggest that the presence of the dog made therapy more pleasurable and productive and therefore made it more likely that the children would continue and extend their efforts. Because the presence of the dog was associated with improved performance, it is unlikely that the dog was a simple distraction for the children. Rather, it appears that the unique type of social support provided by a dog influenced autistic children to perceive their therapeutic sessions as more challenging than threatening.
The effect of dolphins on the cognitive performance of children with mental disabilities has also been the focus of study (Nathason & de Faria, 1993). This study compared children in water alone and with dolphins and found that, relative to using favorite toys as reinforcement, interaction with dolphins as reinforcement evoked a greater number and higher level of responses. The authors interpret increased functioning levels as a function of children's reduction in stress.
Traumatic brain injury or stroke causes dramatic changes in a person's appearance, cognitive functioning, independence, and mobility. Wille (1984) considered potential roles for companion animals in the rehabilitation of people with neurological impairment and concluded that pets can play an important role in helping a person with stroke or brain injury be accepted as "normal." Being perceived as socially acceptable increases a person's self-esteem and psychological well being, which in turn may make it more likely to perceive stressful events as surmountable challenges rather than threatening impossibilities. Reintegration into the community, which is one of the most important measures of success in rehabilitation of people with neurological impairment, has been associated with the presence of pets in the home (Allen, 1992).
& #9;Valentine, Kiddoo, & LaFleur (1993) retrospectively explored the psychosocial implications of service dogs for people with mobility or hearing disabilities, and found that all participants in their study reported "more freedom to be capable" following the acquisition of a service dog. In addition, participants said they were considerably less lonely, more assertive, safer, and more independent Allen & Blascovich (1996a) conducted a randomized controlled trial focused on the value of service dogs for people with severe ambulatory disabilities and concluded that trained service dogs can be highly beneficial and potentially cost-effective components of independent living for people with disabilities. Within six months of being provided with a dog, participants in this study showed significant improvements on measures of self-esteem, internal locus of control, psychological well being, and community integration. In addition, the presence of the dog resulted in a significantly reduced number of hours of paid and family-provided assistance needed in activities of daily living.
While some might argue that dogs trained as service dogs are not meant to be pets or companion animals, people in this study regarded them as very helpful, cheerful, best friends rather than assistive devices. Although people with severe, permanent physical disabilities will never be cured by the presence of a dog, they clearly perceive the world in a dramatically different way after receiving one. As one participant summarized, "With my dog I feel safe and capable, and I am no longer afraid of the future. Everyone needs someone to care for, and we care for each other with dignity."
It is estimated that at least 40% of people with AIDS in the United States have pets and Spencer (1992) has described the work of several non-profit organizations that help people with AIDS keep their pets. Volunteers provide food, veterinary care, in-home pet care, walks for dogs, and educational materials regarding zoonoses. Carmack (1991) has considered the role of companion animals for people with AIDS from a nursing perspective, and concludes that a companion animal's ability to reduce feelings of isolation and loneliness is of paramount importance. The most terrifying diseases are those perceived as not just lethal, but dehumanizing as well (Sontag, 1990). Individuals with AIDS experience just such a consequence and often lose their jobs, families, and friends. Animals remain constant in their affection for people with AIDS even if human relationships are lost to fear or ignorance. Carmack's descriptive study (1991) documents through patient self-reporting the importance of animals in the lives of people with AIDS, and emphasizes the stress reduction role that pets can play. Respondents in this study talked to their animals at great length, reported the pet as a reason to live, and felt needed. For people with AIDS pets are perceived as a major, and sometimes the only, source of support, and they increase the perception of having sufficient coping resources to deal with stress.
More recently the relationship between AIDS, pet ownership and depression was explored (Siegel, Angulo, Detels, Wesch, & Mullen, 1999). This study found that persons with AIDS who had pets reported less depression than persons with AIDS who did not have pets. This beneficial effect of pet ownership occurred principally among individuals with few social contacts and others to confide in, which suggests that enhancing the social environment with pets may help buffer the stressful impact of AIDS.
Although there have been many anecdotal reports of the benefits of pets for people with Alzheimer's disease, few research studies have been conducted. Manor (1991) has provided a clinical nursing observation on how pets can be therapeutic for patients with Alzheimer's disease, and suggests that pets help alleviate loneliness and emotional isolation, increase communication, social interaction, and sensory stimulation. In addition, they contribute to a non-threatening, peaceful, homelike environment for residents of nursing homes. Animals can also be beneficial for nursing home staff members who care for patients with debilitating cognitive impairment because the presence of pets can make the stressful job of caregiving more pleasant.
In addition, animals in nursing homes make it more likely that family members will come to visit their relative with Alzheimer's disease. Providing home care for relatives with Alzheimer's is stressful, as well as physically and emotionally draining and Fritz, Farver, Hart, & Kass (1996) found that pets can temper some of the psychological stress associated with such care. Interestingly, in this study of caregivers, the positive influence of pets was found with young females and males, but not middle-aged females.
Read the next section: Companion Animals and Elderly People.
